Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve – 1,325 km2 (512 sq mi) The Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve is the only hunting reserve in Nepal. Established in 1987 it covers an area of 1,325 km2 (512 sq mi) in the Dhaulagiri Himal of western Nepal in the Rukum, Myagdi and Baglung Districts. In altitude it ranges from 2,850 to 5,500 m (9,350 to 18,040 ft). Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve lies in the Baglung district of Dhawalagiri Himalayan range. It is the only hunting reserve in Nepal and was primarily established to cater for the needs of sport hunting and for the conservation of representatives of temperate, subalpine and alpine ecosystems of west Nepal. This reserve is characterized by alpine, sub-alpine and temperate vegetation. Oaks Quercus lanata and Q. semecarpifolia form well developed stands at the reserve’s lower elevations in more moist and shaded areas. The other common tree species are fir Abies pindrow, birch Betula utilis, spruce Picea smithiana, juniper Juniperus recurva, pine Pinus wallichiana, hemlock Tsuga dumosa, rhododendron Rhododendron spp. and other alpine shrubs. Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve is one of the prime habitats of blue sheep, a highly prized trophy animal, which is the main target of hunters. Dhorpatan Hunting reserve is the only area in Nepal where licensed hunting is allowed. The reserve adjoins Myagdi district and Baglung district, just below the Dhaulagiri Range in the west Nepal. Spreading over an area of 1325 sq. kms the reserve begins at 3000 meters reaching as high as 7000 meters. Trees like fir, pine, birch, rhododendron, hemlock, oak, juniper and spruce are available in the reserve. One of the prime attractions for hunters is the blue sheep, which is abundant in the region. Hunters also get pheasant and partridge in vialble populations for hunting. Other animals found here are leopard ghoral, serow, Himalayan Thar, Himalayan Black bear, barking deerm wild boar, rhesus macaque, langur and mouse hare. Endangered animals in the reserve are musk deer, wolf red panda, cheer pheasant and danphe. The gateway to the region is Beni Baglung district mid west Nepal. The reserve headquarters , The time to visit the reserve is from September to May. We offer you at the same time to hunt Blusheep & Himalayan Tahr. Hunting time takes another about 4-5 days extra. In Dhorpatan department of National Park & Wildlife Conservation has categorized seven different hunting Blocks. In Some block more Tahr found, some block Blue sheep Found. We offer the combo hunt combining two or three hunting block. Hunting Block in the north of reserve is quite remote and requires additional days. Charter of Helicopter also cost little bit more than lower part. Hunting Block North of Dhorpatan:- Seng Block, Sundaha Block & Dogadi Block Hunting Block South of Reserve:- Fagune Block, Gustang Block, Barse Block & Surtibang Block
List of License:- Bluesheep-1,Himalayan Tahr-1,muntjack-1 and Wildboar-1 and some birds. Summary Hunting Area: Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve Suggested Arrival Day in Kathmandu: Except Saturday & Government Holiday. Group Size: Two Pax Hunt Guarantee: Hunting is a Game; if you are lucky animal can be finding with on two to three days. We put our all effort finding good game in case of occurring unexpected incident such as raining, snowing, sickness, disaster and political problem we cannot guarantee. Season: October - November & March April Optional Season: December & February (it could be very cold),it is advised to check with before making decision. Service: Guided &Camping Service Duration: 20 Days Hunting Block:-Gustang, Barse & Fagune Southern Areas of Dhorpatan. Mode of Transport: Helicopter or driving & trekking. Driving &trekking usually take a week extra. Supporting Crew: Professional Guide, Cook, porters & game scout Equipment: Binocular, radio set(optional),skinning knife, Rifle Winchester ,comfortable walking shoes, warm gore tex Jacket, windbreaker pants, gloves, sunglass, warm woollen or fleece hats, thermal underwear, few pair wool shocks, sunglass, sun lotion, t shirt etc. Booking Process: provide us a clear valid passport copy, details of arm &ammunition, 50 percent Advance and 4 pcs passport sized copy. Trophy Export from Nepal: One can take trophy with them after getting certificate from department of national Park and Animal health directorate. We assist to provide all the documents after the hunt before departure from Nepal. We can even send trophy by courier too. We have done to several countries already in Europe and America. Protection of trophy: Salting & well drying. Import of Riffle: Government of Nepal, Affairs of Home Ministry issue the arm & ammunition licence in application of facilitator. Qatar Airways is most convenience to travel with arm & ammunition as our previous experience.
Our Arrangements: Our Sherpa team reach the near the camp about 3-4 days in advance with taking necessary gears and wait for clients. They also conduct search of animal habitat location. We basically use local peoples who knows areas
Flora and fauna The landscape consists of forests, marshland called Dhor and flat meadows called Patan. Higher elevations remain snow-capped throughout the year. Fifty-eight vascular plants have been recorded as present in the reserve. Flowering plants comprise 36 endemic species. Faunal species cmprise 18 mammals including snow leopard, musk deer Ailurus fulgens Red panda and blue sheep; 137 birds including koklass pheasant, cheer pheasant and impeyan pheasant; and two herpeto species.
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve – 175 km2 (68 sq mi) The Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is a protected area in the Terai of eastern Nepal covering 175 km2 (68 sq mi) of wetlands in the Sunsari, Saptari and Udayapur Districts.It comprises extensive mudflats, reed beds, and freshwater marshes in the floodplain of the Sapta Kosi River, and ranges in altitude from 75 to 81 m (246 to 266 ft).It was established in 1976 and designated as a Ramsar site in December 1987.It can be accessed from the Mahendra Highway. History During 1997 to 1998, an interview survey was conducted in the Paschim Kasuha VDC adjacent to the east of the reserve to investigate the extent of park–people conflict.The findings showed that wild water buffalo and wild boar were major crop raiders between September and February.Large numbers of cattle were found grazing freely inside the reserve.Local people are responsible for illegal utilization of forest products, poaching and river fishing inside the reserve. In 2005, the reserve together with the Koshi Barrage was identified as one of 27 Important Bird Areas of Nepal. Vegetation The vegetation of the reserve is mainly characterised by mixed deciduous riverine forest, grasslands and marshy vegetation.The coverage of grasslands is 68%,compared to only about 6% of forest, which is predominated by Indian rosewood. Patches of catechu forest are more prevalent towards the northwestern part.The grasslands near the running water bodies are maintained by the annual flooding and grazing by wildlife.The Sapta Koshi River, a tributary of the Ganges, causes rapid and intense flooding during the rainy season. In the extensive wetlands,514 plant species are found including kapok, sugarcane, reed, cattail, Imperata cylindrica, eel grass, and species of Eichhornia, Hydrilla, Azolla and lotus. Fauna A wide range of animals inhabit the protected area. In its water courses and ponds, 200 species of fish have been recorded, most of which are resident. Two toad species, nine frog species, six lizard species, five snake species and eleven turtle species are recorded. Gharial and mugger crocodile occur as well. Mammals The 31 species of mammals recorded include the Asian elephant, spotted deer, hog deer, wild pig, smooth-coated otter and golden jackal. The Ganges river dolphin has been sighted in the Koshi River. Gaur and blue bull have declined in numbers.Nepal’s last remaining population of about 150 wild water buffalo inhabit the area.This population has now grown to a total of 432 individuals with an annual growth rate of 7.27 percent, according to the latest census carried out in 2016.With this upsurge in the population,authorities are planning a possible transfer of some wild water buffaloes to the flood plains of Chitwan National Park where they have been extirpated around 1950's.If the proposed translocation happens, this will present a natural Predator-Prey scenario since wild water buffaloes in Koshi Tappu has been lacking their natural predators in the form of tiger, leopard and dhole for quite a long. Birds Notable among the 485 bird species are watercock, Indian nightjar, dusky eagleowl, black-headed cuckooshrike, whitetailed stonechat, striated grassbird, large adjutant stork, Pallas’s fish eagle, common golden-eye, and gullbilled tern.Swamp francolin and Nepal rufous-vented prinia occur as well. In spring 2011,17 Bengal floricans were recorded from nine different sites along a 39 km (24 mi) north-south stretch of the Koshi River. Seven were males and 10 were females. Only five individuals were recorded outside the reserve, two pairs north of Koshi Tappu, and one female seen twice near the Koshi Barrage area.
Parsa Wildlife Reserve – 637 km2 (246 sq mi) Parsa Wildlife Reserve is a protected area in the Inner Terai lowlands of south-central Nepal. Established in 1984 A.D, it covers an area of 637.37 km2 (246.09 sq mi) in the Parsa, Makwanpur and Bara districts and is the largest wildlife reserve in the country.A buffer zone declared in 2005 comprises 298.2 km2 (115.1 sq mi). In altitude it ranges from 435 m (1,427 ft) to 950 m (3,120 ft) in the Siwalika Hills.In 2015, the protected area has been extended by 128 km2 (49 sq mi). In the north of the protected area the Rapti River and Siwalika Hills form a natural boundary to human settlements. In the east it extends up to the Hetauda – Birgunj highway. In the south, a forest roads demarcates the boundary. Adjacent to the west is Chitawan National Park. Together with the Indian Tiger Reserve Valmiki National Park, the coherent protected area of 2,075 km2 (801 sq mi) represents the Tiger Conservation Unit (TCU) Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki, which covers a 3,549 km2 (1,370 sq mi) block of alluvial grasslands and subtropical moist deciduous forests. Before being converted to a protected area, the region used to be a hunting ground of the ruling class. Vegetation The typical vegetation of the park is tropical and subtropical forest types with sal forest constituting about 90% of the vegetation. Chir pine grows in the Churia Hills. Khair, sissoo and silk cotton trees occur along watercourses.Sabai grass grows well on the southern face of the Churia Hills.An estimated 919 species of flora have been recorded including 298 vascular plants, 234 dicots, 58 monocots,five pteridophytes, and one gymnosperm. Fauna In May 2008, a census conducted in the reserve confirmed the presence of 37 gaurs.A survey combined with extensive camera-trapping conducted in 2008 estimated four adult Bengal tigers resident in the reserve.
Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve – 305 km2 (118 sq mi) The Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve is a protected area in the Terai of the Far-Western Region, Nepal, covering 305 km2 (118 sq mi) of open grassland, forests, riverbeds and tropical wetlands at an altitude of 174 to 1,386 metres (571 to 4,547 ft).It was gazetted in 1976 as Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. A small part of the reserve extends north of the East-West Highway to create a corridor for seasonal migration of wildlife into the Sivalik Hills.The Syali River forms the eastern boundary southward to the international border with India, which demarcates the reserve’s southern and western boundary. The Indian Tiger Reserve Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary is contiguous in the south;this coherent protected area of 439 km2 (169 sq mi) represents the Tiger Conservation Unit (TCU) Sukla Phanta-Kishanpur, which covers a 1.897 km2 (0.732 sq mi) block of alluvial grasslands and subtropical moist deciduous forests. The protected area is part of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion and is one of the best-conserved examples of floodplain grassland.It is included in the Terai Arc Landscape. History The area was a favorite hunting ground for Nepal's ruling class and was declared a Royal Hunting Reserve in 1969.In 1973 the area was gazetted as Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, initially comprising 155 km2 (60 sq mi), and extended to its present size in the late 1980s.A buffer zone of 243.5 km2 (94.0 sq mi) was added in May 2004. The name Suklaphanta was derived from one of the grasslands found inside the reserve. The main grassland called Sukla Phanta is the largest patch of continuous grassland in Nepal covering an area of about 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi). The jungles of the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve were once the site of an ancient kingdom. To this day, ruins of that kingdom can be seen in some places. Near Rani Tal,a lake in the reserve, there still remains a brick girdle, measuring 1,500 m (59,000 in) in circumference. It is considered by locals to be a remnant of the fort of Tharu king Singpal. Climate The climate of the region is subtropical monsoonal with mean annual rainfall of 1,579 mm (62.2 in) that occurs from June to September and is highest in August. The winter months of December and January are fairly cold with daytime temperatures of 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) and occasional frost. From February onwards temperatures rise up to 25 °C (77 °F) in March and reach 42 °C (108 °F) by end of April. When the first pre-monsoon rains reach the area in May, humidity increases. Vegetation Some 700 species of flora are estimated in the reserve including 553 vascular plants,18 pteridophytes, 410 dicots and 125 monocots.Grassland constitutes almost half the reserve's vegetation. The main grass species are Imperata cylindrica and Heteropogon contortus. khagra reed (Phragmites karka) and Saccharum spontaneum grow in the marshes surrounding the seven small lakes.The dominant forest type is sal. Khair and sissoo grow alongside rivers.Grassland encroachment by tree and shrub saplings are major threats to the long-term existence of the main phantas .Trees out compete any grasses growing under them, especially those that need plenty of sunlight.Tree seeds are dispersed all over the grasslands and generally germinate near existing trees.Additionally, trees encourage the growth of shade-loving grasses and inhibit growth of sun-loving species. This process of succession usually converts grassland into woodland over time. Fauna The extensive open grasslands and wetlands around the lakes of the reserve are habitat for a wide range of fauna.In the rivers, lakes and ponds 28 fish species and 12 reptile and amphibian species were recorded.These include mahseer and rohu, mugger crocodile,Indian rock python, monitor lizard, Indian cobra, common krait and Oriental ratsnake. Mammals Current checklists include 46 mammal species, of which 18 are protected under CITES such as the Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, sloth bear, swamp deer, elephant and hispid hare. Great one-horned rhinoceros were translocated from Chitwan National Park to establish a third viable population in the country. The congregation of swamp deer in the reserve's grasslands is the largest in the world; the population of hispid hare may be of international significance.As of 2013, there were 2170 swamp deer in the reserve. Birds A total of 423 bird species has been recorded. The reserve supports the highest population of Bengal floricans in Nepal. It is the western limit of swamp francolin, Jerdon's bushchat, rufous-rumped grassbird, chestnut-capped babbler and Jerdon's babbler; the north-western limit of yellow-eyed babbler; the eastern limit of Finn's weaver and the most important regular wintering site of Hodgson's bushchat.Forest birds include spot-bellied eagle owl,dusky eagle owl, rufous-bellied eagle and Oriental pied hornbill. The forests are also important for great slaty woodpecker and white-naped woodpecker.The white-rumped vulture, slender-billed vulture, lesser adjutant, grey-headed fish eagle, darter and rufous-rumped grassbird are breeding residents.Sarus crane, painted stork and bristled grassbird are summer visitors. Greater racquet-tailed drongo, white-capped water redstart, rusty-tailed flycatcher and rufous-gorgeted flycatcher are uncommon winter visitors. During a survey carried out in January 2005, a total of 19 Hodgson's bushchats were recorded, and a year later only 8 males.
Annapurna Conservation Area – 7,629 km2 (2,946 sq mi) The Annapurna Conservation Area is Nepal's largest protected area covering 7,629 km2 (2,946 sq mi) in the Annapurna range of the Himalayas across the Manang, Mustang, Kaski, Myagdi, and Lamjung districts. The area ranges in altitude from 790 m (2,590 ft) to the peak of Annapurna I at 8,091 m (26,545 ft). History The Annapurna Conservation Area was established in 1985 and gazetted in 1992. It is managed by the National Trust for Nature Conservation. Climate There are two distinct climatic regions within a span of 120 km (75 mi) and an altitude of 1,000 to 8,000 m (3,300 to 26,200 ft). Annual rainfall averages 3,000 mm (120 in) in the south, and less than 500 mm (20 in) in the north. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area – 2,035 km2 (786 sq mi) The Kanchenjunga Conservation Area is a protected area in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal. Established in 1997 it covers 2,035 km2 (786 sq mi) in the Taplejung District and comprises two peaks of Kanchenjunga. In the north it adjoins the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve in Tibet, and in the east the Khangchendzonga National Park in Sikkim.To the west it adjoins the Sankhuwasabha District.It ranges in altitude from 1,200 m (3,900 ft) to 8,586 m (28,169 ft).It also falls within the Sacred Himalayan Landscape, which is being developed by WWF Nepal in partnership with the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. History When the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area was designated in March 1997, it was Nepal’s third Conservation Area. In April 2003, a Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Management Council was formed with the support of WWF Nepal, comprising seven Conservation Area User Committees, 44 User Groups, and 32 Mother Groups. These community based institutions support effective implementation of all planned activities. In August 2006, the Government of Nepal handed over the management of the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area to the Management Council. Vegetation The landscape of the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area comprises cultivated lands, forests, pastures, rivers, high altitude lakes and glaciers. Fauna Mammal species include the snow leopard, Asian black bear, and red panda.Bird species symbolic of the area include the golden-breasted ful vetta, snow cock, blood pheasant, and red-billed chough. In 2012, a leopard cat was camera trapped at an elevation of 4,500 m (14,800 ft).This record constitutes the highest known record to date.
Manaslu Conservation Area – 1,663 km2 (642 sq mi)
The Manaslu Conservation Area is a protected area in Nepal. Established in 1998 it covers 1,663 km2 (642 sq mi) in the Mansiri Himal range of the Himalayas in the Gorkha District. The area comprises mountains, glaciers, and watercourses.In elevation, the area ranges from 1,400 m (4,600 ft) to 8,156 m (26,759 ft) at Manaslu. Flora and Fauna The region is home to 33 species of mammals including snow leopard, musk deer and Himalayan tahr. There are over 110 species of birds and three species of reptiles and over 1500-2000 species of flowering plants. Blackbuck Conservation Area – 15.95 km2 (6.16 sq mi)
The Blackbuck Conservation Area is located in the Mid-Western Region,Nepal and was established in 2009 to conserve the endangered blackbuck.This protected area covers 16.95 km2 (6.54 sq mi) in the Bardiya District. History Attempts for the conservation of blackbuck in Nepal began in 1975 when a small herd was spotted in Khairapur VDC of Bardiya District. Realizing their fragile existence, immediate efforts were made to protect the herd. The government deployed five staff members, providing four of them with arms. A guard post was also established in the same year. This particular herd is the northernmost surviving herd of blackbucks in the world. In 2009, the herd numbered 202 comprising 73 males,111 females and 18 calves. During 1995-1997,the Government of Nepal obtained private land for blackbuck conservation. Api Nampa Conservation Area – 1,903 km2 (735 sq mi)
The Api-Nampa Conservation Area is a protected area in the Far-Western Development Region, Nepal. It was established in 2010 and covers 1,903 km2 (735 sq mi) encompassing 21 Village Development Committees in the Darchula District. The western boundary is formed by the Mahakali River, and the northern by the international border with Tibet. Adjacent to the east are the Bajhang and Baitadi districts.[1] It ranges in elevation from 518 to 7,132 m (1,699 to 23,399 ft) at the Himalayan peak Api, and is within the circumscribed area of the Kailash Sacred Landscape. Named after the two peaks Api and Nampa, it was established to conserve the unique biodiversity and cultural heritage of the area.It is inhabited by 54,358 people living in 8966 households.A grasslands plateau is at the center of the area. It is intermixed with various forest types. Fauna Mammalian species include snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, red panda, common langur, Himalayan tahr, Himalayan musk deer, goral and serow. Birds include Himalayan monal, snowcock and blood pheasant.
Gaurishankar Conservation Area – 2,179 km2 (841 sq mi)
Gaurishankar Conservation Area is a protected area in the Himalayas of Nepal that has been established in January 2010, covering 2,179 km2 (841 sq mi) in the Ramechhap, Dolakha and Sindhupalchok districts and encompassing 22 Village Development Committees. It is contiguous with Tibet in the north.The protected area connects the Langtang and Sagarmatha National Parks.The Government of Nepal handed over the management of Gaurishankar Conservation Area to National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) for 20 years in 2010. Following the models of Annapurna and Manaslu Conservation Areas, NTNC has been managing the area through its Gaurishankar Conservation Area Project.It is a part of the Sacred Himalayan Landscape.The headquarters is in Charikot. History In April 2006, the Dolakha Chamber of Commerce and Industries has requested the Government of Nepal and the Nepal Tourism Board to declare the Rolwaling area as a national park. In January 2010, the Federation of Community Forest Users, Nepal expressed its disagreement against the decision to establish a conservation area and formed a National Struggle Committee to launch a campaign against the declaration, demanding that the community people should obtain management responsibility of the protected area. Conservation Area Boundary The Gaurishankar Conservation Area encompasses 22 VDCs,covering three districts. In Ramechhap, it includes the Chuchure and Gumdel VDCs.The Shyama, Suri,Chankhu, Marbu, Khare, Orang, Bulung, Laduk, Chilankha, Aalampu, Bigu,Kalinchok,Lamabagar and Gaurishankar VDCs of Dolakha also fall within its boundaries. And six VDCs of the Sindhupalchok District - Ghorthali, Marming, Listikot, Tatopani, Fulpingkatti and Gumba - are now part of the conservation area. Flora and Fauna The Gaurishankar Conservation Area is rich in bio-diversity. A total of 16 varieties of vegetation have been identified in the area, including forests of Pinus roxburghii, Schima-Castanopsis, Alnus, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus patula, Rhododendron, Quercus lanata and Temperate mountain oak forest. Mammals The Gaurishankar Conservation Area's mammalian population totals 34 species of mammals.One of the most rare animals in the area is the Red panda. Birds A total of 235 species of birds have been recorded from the Gaurishankar Conservation Area. Others The conservation area also has 14 snake species,16 species of fish,10 types of amphibians and 8 lizard species. Kalinchowk Bhagwati Shrine
There is a famous shrine of the Kalinchowk Bhagwati in Kuri village in the Kalinchowk VDC. It is a famous pilgrimage site for Hindus.
April 2015 Nepal earthquake The April 2015 Nepal earthquake (also known as the Gorkha earthquake) killed nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred at 11:56 Nepal Standard Time on 25 April, with a magnitude of 7.8Mw or 8.1Ms and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent).ts epicenter was east of Gorkha District at Barpak, Gorkha, and its hypocenter was at a depth of approximately 8.2 km (5.1 mi).It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake.The ground motion recorded in Kathmandu valley was of low frequency which, along with its occurrence at an hour where many people in rural areas were working outdoors, decreased the loss of property and human life. The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21,making April 25, 2015 the deadliest day on the mountain in history.The earthquake triggered another huge avalanche in the Langtang valley, where 250 people were reported missing.Hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless with entire villages flattened,across many districts of the country. Centuries-old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World Heritage sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Kathmandu Durbar Square, the Patan Durbar Square, the Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the Changu Narayan Temple, the Boudhanath stupa and the Swayambhunath Stupa. Geophysicists and other experts had warned for decades that Nepal was vulnerable to a deadly earthquake, particularly because of its geology, urbanization, and architecture. Continued aftershocks occurred throughout Nepal at the intervals of 15–20 minutes, with one shock reaching a magnitude of 6.7 on 26 April at 12:54:08 NST.The country also had a continued risk of landslides. A major aftershock occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3.The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest.More than 200 people were killed and more than 2,500 were injured by this aftershock. Earthquake The earthquake occurred on 25 April 2015 at 11:56 a.m. NST (06:11:26 UTC) at a depth of approximately 15 km (9.3 mi) (which is considered shallow and therefore more damaging than quakes that originate deeper in the ground),[26] with its epicentre approximately 34 km (21 mi) east-southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, lasting approximately fifty seconds.The earthquake was initially reported as 7.5 Mw by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) before it was quickly upgraded to 7.8 Mw. The China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) reported the earthquake's magnitude to be 8.1 Ms. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) said two powerful quakes were registered in Nepal at 06:11 UTC and 06:45 UTC. The first quake measured 7.8 Mw and its epicenter was identified at a distance of 80 km to the northwest of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Bharatpur was the nearest major city to the main earthquake, 53 km (33 mi) from the epicenter. The second earthquake was somewhat less powerful at 6.6 Mw. It occurred 65 km (40 mi) east of Kathmandu and its seismic focus lay at a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi) below the earth's surface.Over thirty-eight aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 Mw or greater occurred in the day following the initial earthquake, including the one of magnitude 6.8 Mw.[ According to the USGS, the earthquake was caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress, along the major fault line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eurasian Plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia.Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately 120 km (74 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, reportedly shifted 3 m (10 ft) to the south in a matter of just 30 seconds. The risk of a large earthquake was well known beforehand. In 2013, in an interview with seismologist Vinod Kumar Gaur, The Hindu quoted him as saying, "Calculations show that there is sufficient accumulated energy [in the Main Frontal Thrust], now to produce an 8 magnitude earthquake. I cannot say when. It may not happen tomorrow, but it could possibly happen sometime this century, or wait longer to produce a much larger one."According to Brian Tucker, founder of a nonprofit organization devoted to reducing casualties from natural disasters, some government officials had expressed confidence that such an earthquake would not occur again. Tucker recounted a conversation he had had with a government official in the 1990s who said, "We don't have to worry about earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake"; the previous earthquake to which he referred occurred in 1934. Geology Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian Plate underthrusts the Eurasian Plate,occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long Himalayas. Geologically,the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into five tectonic zones from north to south and, east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai Plain (2) Sub Himalaya (Sivalik Range) (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys) (4) Higher Himalaya (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys) Each of these zones is clearly identified by their morphological, geological, and tectonic features. The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location, magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal Thrust.[ The earthquake's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake. Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a great earthquake occurs every 750?±?140 and 870?±?350?years in the east Nepal region.A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, the earthquake from 1934 in Nepal and the 2015 quake are connected, following a historic earthquake pattern.A 2016 study on historical great (M = 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in West China region through the 2020s. Intensity According to "Did You Feel It?" (DYFI?) responses on the USGS website, the intensity in small parts of Kathmandu was IX (Violent).In most of Kathmandu the intensity was VI, as evidenced by the numerous undamaged water towers installed on top of undamaged multi story buildings. Tremors were felt in the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Gujarat,in the National capital region around New Delhi and as far south as Karnataka.Many buildings were brought down in Bihar. Minor cracks in the walls of houses were reported in Odisha. Minor quakes were registered as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala.The intensity in Patna was V (Moderate). The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh.The earthquake was also experienced across southwestern China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicenter.Tremors were felt in Pakistan and Bhutan. Aftershocks A series of aftershocks began immediately after the mainshock, at intervals of 15–30 minutes, with one aftershock reaching 6.6Mw within 34 minutes of the initial quake. A major aftershock of magnitude 6.9 Mw occurred on 26 April 2015 in the same region at 12:54 NST (07:08 UTC), with an epicenter located about 17 km (11 mi) south of Kodari, Nepal.The aftershock caused fresh avalanches on Mount Everest and was felt in many places in northern India including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, and Assam.The aftershock caused a landslide on the Koshi Highway which blocked the section of the road between Bhedetar and Mulghat. A model of GeoGateway, based on a United States Geological Survey mechanism of a near-horizontal fault as well as location of aftershocks showed that the fault had an 11° dip towards the north, striking at 295°, 50 km (31 mi) wide, 150 km (93 mi) long, and had a dip slip of 3 m (9.8 ft).The USGS says the aftershock registered at a shallow depth of 10 km (6.2 mi). Assuming that 25 April earthquake was the largest event in this seismic episode, Nepal could expect more than 30 aftershocks greater than magnitude 5 over the following month.As of 24 May 2016, 459 aftershocks had occurred with different epicenters and magnitudes equal to or above 4 Mw (out of which 51 aftershocks are equal to or above 5 Mw and 5 aftershocks above 6 Mw) and more than 20,000 aftershocks less than 4 Mw. 12 May 2015 earthquake A second major earthquake occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3Mw 18 km (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. It struck at the depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles). This earthquake occurred along the same fault as the original magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April but further to the east. As such, it is considered to be an aftershock of the 25 April quake.Tremors were also felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and other North-Indian States.At least 153 died in Nepal as a result of the aftershock and about 2,500 were injured. 62 others died in India, two in Bangladesh, and one in China.In Kathmandu the intensity was VI. People ran out of doors, or dove under a strong table (a behaviour more recommended), but water towers on top of multi story buildings remained intact. Aftermath Disastrous events in very poor and politically paralyzed nations such as Nepal often become a long drawn out chain of events, in that one disaster feeds into another for years or even decades upon end. The aftereffects from the earthquake have knock-on effects on a myriad of seemingly unrelated aspects: human trafficking, labour cost and availability, rental and property cost burdens, urbanization, private and public debt burdens, mental health, politics, tourism, disease, and damage to the healthcare system. Some disasters that came with the monsoon season were suspected to be related to the earthquake.There was a landslip on 11 June that claimed 53 lives.Meanwhile, a glacial lake had burst in particularly hard hit Solukhumbhu district.Whether or not the quake had contributed to such events is often unknown and unresearched, but certainly possible. Casualties Nepal The earthquake killed more than 8,800 in Nepal&injured nearly three times as many. The rural death toll may have been minimized by the fact that most villagers were outdoors working when the quake hit.As of 15 May, 6,271 people, including 1,700 from the 12 May aftershock, were still receiving treatment for their injuries.Nearly 3.5 million people were left homeless. The Himalayan Times reported that as many as 20,000 foreign nationals may have been visiting Nepal at the time of the earthquake, although reports of foreign deaths were relatively low. India A total of 78 deaths were reported in India - including 58 in Bihar, 16 in Uttar Pradesh, 3 in West Bengal and 1 in Rajasthan. China 27 dead and 4 missing, all from the Tibet Autonomous Region. Bangladesh 4 dead. Avalanches on Mount Everest This earthquake caused avalanches on Mount Everest. At least 19 died, including Google executive Dan Fredinburg, with at least 120 others injured or missing. Landslides in the Langtang ValleyIn the Langtang valley located in Langtang National Park, 329 people were reported missing after an avalanche hit the village of Ghodatabela and the village of Langtang. The avalanche was estimated to have been two to three kilometres wide. Ghodatabela was an area popular on the Langtang trekking route.The village of Langtang was destroyed by the avalanche. Smaller settlements on the outskirts of Langtang were buried during the earthquake, such as Chyamki, Thangsyap, and Mundu.Twelve locals and two foreigners were believed to have survived. Smaller landslides occurred in the Trishuli River Valley with reports of significant damage at Mailung, Simle, and Archale. On 4 May it was announced that 52 bodies had been found in the Langtang area, of which seven were of foreigners. According to geological models, the frequency and intensity of future landslides in the Langtang Valley is due to increase in the coming decades.[98] This is attributable directly to the effect of the earthquake, which caused widespread fracturing in the grounds of the Langtang area. Damage Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the epicenter. The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the quake, but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights. It subsequently shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks, and on 3 May was closed temporarily to the largest planes for fear of runway damage.During strong aftershocks, the airport opened all boarding-lounge exit doors onto the tarmac, allowing travelers who were waiting post security and immigration to flee to the open spaces of the runway tarmac. Many travelers remained outside as planes were delayed and the airport swelled to capacity. The airport facilities suffered damage and there was no running water or operating toilets for travelers waiting in the airport lounges. Few airport workers were at their posts; most were killed in the earthquake or had to deal with its aftereffects. Building damage as a result of the earthquake Several of the churches in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed. As Saturday is the principal day of Christian worship in Nepal, 500 people were reported to have died in the collapses. Several temples on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed, as did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people,Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, previously damaged in an earlier quake, tilted several inches further. The northern side of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur was reported to have been damaged.Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of the nine-story Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple and two dewals located behind the Shiva Parvati temple were demolished by the quake. Some other monuments including the Taleju Bhawani Temple partially collapsed. The top of the Jaya Bageshwari Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar High School have been destroyed. In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir,the statue of Yog Narendra Malla,a pati inside Patan Durbar Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shankar, Uma Maheshwar Temple and the Machhindranath Temple in Bungamati were destroyed.In Tripureshwar,the Kal Mochan Ghat,a temple inspired by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Phasi Deva temple, the Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple were fully or partially destroyed. Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchok Bhagwati, in Kabhrepalanchok District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Churiyamai in Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar suffered varying degrees of damage. Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They cannot be restored to their original states."The northeastern parts of India also received major damage. Heavy shocks were felt in the states of Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and others. Huge damage was caused to the property and the lives of the people. Economic loss Concern was expressed that harvests could be reduced or lost this season as people affected by the earthquake would have only a short time to plant crops before the onset of the Monsoon rains. Nepal, with a total Gross Domestic Product of USD$19.921 billion (according to a 2012 estimate),is one of Asia's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major reconstruction effort on its own.Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually on infrastructure through to 2020 to attract investment.The U.S. Geological Survey initially estimated economic losses from the tremor at 9 percent to 50 percent of gross domestic product, with a best guess of 35 percent. "It’s too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the effect on Nepal’s GDP", according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official. The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a USD$3 million grant to Nepal for immediate relief efforts, and up to USD$200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation. Damaged house in Chaurikharka Rajiv Biswas, an economist at a Colorado-based consultancy, said that rebuilding the economy will need international effort over the next few years as it could "easily exceed" USD$5 billion, or about 20 percent of Nepal's gross domestic product. Social effects It was reported that the survivors were preyed upon by human traffickers involved in the supply of girls and women to the brothels of South Asia. These traffickers took advantage of the chaos that resulted from the aftermath of the earthquake.The most affected were women from poor communities who lost their homes. Most affected Single women face daunting challenges in obtaining resources after the quake. Single women have had very little access to relief, according to a report by the Inter-party Women’s Alliance (IPWA). The report also found that violence and rapes against women and minors has increased after the earthquake.Additionally, the earthquake has significantly affected certain groups of people. Tibeto-Burman peoples were hardest hit as they tend to inhabit the higher slopes of mountains as opposed to the central valleys, are less educated and connected. All of these factors make them harder to access. According to a government survey, malnutrition in children has worsened considerably some 3 months after the quake, with the most undernourished being Tamang and Chepang peoples.Before the quake, 41 percent of children under five were stunted, 29 percent were underweight and 11 percent were emaciated, according to the World Food Programme. Media coverage On 3 May, the hashtag #GoHomeIndianMedia was trending worldwide on Twitter, condemning news covered by the Indian media as insensitive and inhumane to victims of the tragedy. The people of Nepal acknowledged the aid and effort put by the Indian armed forces, yet, at the same time, accused Indian news networks of carrying out "a public relations exercise" on behalf of the Indian government, of overemphasizing the role of the Indian Army, and of hogging space on relief planes where aid material or rescue or medical personnel could have been sent instead.Indian users responded with the hashtags #SorryNepal and #DontComeBackIndianMedia. Disease Though a feared mass cholera outbreak failed to materialize (there were sporadic reports), other outbreaks have been reported. At least 13 people have died of scrub typhus while 240 people have been taken ill since the disease was first diagnosed in the country in August 2015 until Sept 2016. Rescue and relief About 90% of soldiers from the Nepalese Army were sent to the stricken areas in the aftermath of the earthquake under Operation Sankat Mochan, with volunteers mobilized from other parts of the country.Rainfall and aftershocks were factors complicating the rescue efforts, with potential secondary effects like additional landslides and further building collapses being concerns. Impassable roads and damaged communications infrastructure posed substantial challenges to rescue efforts.Survivors were found up to a week after the earthquake. As of 1 May international aid agencies like Médecins Sans Frontières and the Red Cross were able to start medically evacuating the critically wounded by helicopter from outlying areas, initially cut-off from the capital city, Kathmandu,and treating others in mobile and makeshift facilities.There was concern about epidemics due to the shortage of clean water, the makeshift nature of living conditions and the lack of toilets. Emergency workers were able to identify four men who had been trapped in rubble, and rescue them, using advanced heartbeat detection. The four men were trapped in up to ten feet of rubble in the village of Chautara, north of Kathmandu. An international team of rescuers from several countries using FINDER devices found two sets of men under two different collapsed buildings. Volunteers used crisis mapping to help plan emergency aid work.Public volunteers from around the world added details into online maps.Information was mapped from data input from social media, satellite pictures and drones of passable roads, collapsed houses, stranded, shelterless and starving people, who needed help, and from messages and contact details of people willing to help.On-site volunteers verified these mapping details wherever they could to reduce errors. First responders, from Nepalese citizens to the Red Cross, the Nepal army and the United Nations used this data. The Nepal earthquake crisis mapping utilized experience gained and lessons learned about planning emergency aid work from earthquakes in Haiti and Indonesia. India decided to donate $1 billion in cash and materials to Nepal. India's External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj said "I am happy to announce Government of India's pledge for Nepal's post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepali Rupees 10,000 crores, equivalent to one billion US dollars, one fourth of it as Grant."The International Conference on Nepal's Reconstruction has been organised by the Nepalese government to raise funds for rebuilding the country. Reports are also coming in of sub-standard relief materials and inedible food being sent to Nepal by many of the foreign aid agencies. A United States Marine Corps helicopter crashed on 12 May while involved in delivering relief supplies. The Bell UH-1Y Venom crashed at Charikot, roughly 45 miles (72 kilometers) east of Kathmandu. Two Nepalese soldiers and 6 American Marines died in the crash. Need-fulfillment application, Getmii, launched a special pilot version in partnership with the Red Cross to double daily blood donors at the Kathmandu donation center using the app. Imaging technologies such as satellites and smartphones, were instrumental to relief efforts in Nepal.GLIMS, group of volunteer scientists from nine nations, were able to provide rapid, systematic mapping of the damaged area, allowing the investigation of earthquake-induced geo-hazard processes which provided information to relief and recovery officials on the same timeframe as those operations were occurring. Repair and reconstruction Monuments UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture began strengthening damaged monuments in danger of collapsing before the monsoon season. Subsequent restoration of collapsed structures, including historic houses is planned. Architectural drawings exist that provide plans for reconstruction.According to UNESCO, more than 30 monuments in the Kathmandu Valley collapsed in the quakes, and another 120 incurred partial damage.Repair estimates are $160 million to restore 1,000 damaged and destroyed monasteries, temples, historic houses, and shrines across the country. The destruction is concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley. UNESCO designated seven groups of multi-ethnic monuments clustered in the valley as a single World Heritage Site, including Swayambhu, the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, and the Hindu temples of Pashupati and Changu Narayan. Damaged in the quakes were the structures in the three Durbar squares,the temple of Changu Narayan, and the 1655 temple in Sankhu. Drones fly above cultural heritage sites to provide 3D images of the damage to use for planning repairs. International aid UNICEF appealed for donations, as close to 1.7 million children had been driven out into the open, and were in desperate need of drinking water, psychological counsel, temporary shelters, sanitation and protection from disease outbreak.It distributed water, tents, hygiene kits, water purification tablets and buckets.Numerous other organizations provided similar support. India was the first to respond within hours, being Nepal's immediate neighbour,with Operation Maitri which provided rescue and relief by its armed forces. It also evacuated its own and other countries' stranded nationals.The United Kingdom has been the largest bilateral aid donor to Nepal following the earthquake.The United States, China and other nations have provided helicopters as requested by the Nepalese government.[156][157] On 26 April 2015, international aid agencies and governments mobilized rescue workers and aid for the earthquake.They faced challenges in both getting assistance to Nepal and ferrying people to remote areas as the country had few helicopters.Relief efforts were also hampered by Nepalese government insistence on routing aid through the Prime Minister's Disaster Relief Fund and its National Emergency Operation Center. After concerns were raised, it was clarified that "Non-profits" or NGOs already in the country could continue receiving aid directly and bypass the official fund.Aid mismatch and supply of "leftovers" by donors,aid diversion in Nepal,mistrust over control of the distribution of funds and supplies,congestion and customs delays at Kathmandu's airport and border check posts were also reported.On 3 May 2015, restrictions were placed on heavy aircraft flying in aid supplies after new cracks were noticed on the runway at the Tribhuvan airport (KTM), Nepal's only wide-body jet airport.
Nepal has seen rapid political changes during the last two decades.Up until 1990, Nepal was a monarchy under executive control of the King.Faced with a communist movement against absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to a large-scale political reform by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of the government. Nepal's legislature was bicameral, consisting of a House of Representatives called the Pratinidhi Sabha and a National Council called the Rastriya Sabha. The House of Representatives consisted of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members: ten nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives, and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepali citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the Council of Ministers (the cabinet). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal tended to be highly unstable, falling either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch, on the recommendation of the prime minister, according to the constitution; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991. The movement in April 2006 brought about a change in the nation's governance: an interim constitution was promulgated, with the King giving up power, and an interim House of Representatives was formed with Maoist members after the new government held peace talks with the Maoist rebels. The number of parliamentary seats was also increased to 330. In April 2007, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim government of Nepal. In December 2007, the interim parliament passed a bill making Nepal a federal republic, with a president as head of state. Elections for the constitutional assembly were held on 10 April 2008; the Maoist party led the results but did not achieve a simple majority of seats.The new parliament adopted the 2007 bill at its first meeting by an overwhelming majority, and King Gyanendra was given 15 days to leave the Royal Palace in central Kathmandu. He left on 11 June. On 26 June 2008, the prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, who had served as Acting Head of State since January 2007, announced that he would resign on the election of the country's first president by the Constituent Assembly. The first round of voting, on 19 July 2008, saw Parmanand Jha win election as Nepali vice-president, but neither of the contenders for president received the required 298 votes and a second round was held two days later. Ram Baran Yadav of the Nepali Congress party defeated Maoist-backed Ram Raja Prasad Singh with 308 of the 590 votes cast.Koirala submitted his resignation to the new president after Yadav's swearing-in ceremony on 23 July 2008. On 15 August 2008, Maoist leader Prachanda (Pushpa Kamal Dahal) was elected Prime Minister of Nepal, the first since the country's transition from a monarchy to a republic. On 4 May 2009, Dahal resigned over on-going conflicts with regard to the sacking of the Army chief. Since Dahal's resignation, the country has been in a serious political deadlock with one of the big issues being the proposed integration of the former Maoist combatants, also known as the People's Liberation Army, into the national security forces.After Dahal, Jhala Nath Khanal of CPN (UML) was elected the Prime Minister. Khanal was forced to step down as he could not succeed in carrying forward the Peace Process and the constitution writing. On August 2011, Maoist Babu Ram Bhattarai became third Prime Minister after the election of constituent assembly.On 24 May 2012, Nepals's Deputy PM Krishna Sitaula resigned.On 27 May 2012, the country's Constituent Assembly failed to meet the deadline for writing a new constitution for the country. Prime Minister Baburam Bhattarai announced that new elections will be held on 22 November 2012. "We have no other option but to go back to the people and elect a new assembly to write the constitution," he said in a nationally televised speech. One of the main obstacles has been disagreement over whether the states which will be created will be based on ethnicity. Nepal is one of the few countries in Asia to abolish the death penalty. Nepal is the only Asian country where the possibility of same-sex marriage has been proposed in the high court and in the legislature although same-sex marriage currently does not exist in Nepal (see also LGBT rights in Nepal and Same-sex marriage in Nepal). The decision was based on a seven-person government committee study, and enacted through Supreme Court's ruling November 2008. The ruling granted full rights for LGBT individuals, including the right to marry and now can get citizenship as a third gender rather than male or female as authorized by Nepal's Supreme Court in 2007. Constitution Nepal is governed according to the Constitution of Nepal, which came into effect on 20 September 2015, replacing the Interim Constitution of 2007. The Constitution was drafted by the Second Constituent Assembly following the failure of the First Constituent Assembly to produce a constitution in its mandated period. The constitution is the fundamental law of Nepal. It defines Nepal as having multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural characteristics with common aspirations of people living in diverse geographical regions, and being committed to and united by a bond of allegiance to national independence, territorial integrity, national interest and prosperity of Nepal. All the Nepali people collectively constitute the nation. Government Entrance to Singha Durbar, the seat of the Nepali government in Kathmandu The Constitution of Nepal has defined three organs of the government. Executive The form of governance of Nepal shall be a multi-party, competitive, federal democratic republican parliamentary system based on plurality. Federal executive The executive power of Nepal shall rest with the Council of Ministers in accordance with the Constitution and law.The President shall appoint the parliamentary party leader of the political party with the majority in the House of Representatives as a Prime Minister, and a Council of Ministers shall be formed in his/her chairmanship Provincial executive The executive power of the Province shall,pursuant to the Constitution and laws, be vested in the Council of Ministers of the Province.Provided that the executive power of the Province shall be exercised by the Provincial Head in case of absence of the Provincial Executive in a State of Emergency or enforcement of Federal rule. Every province shall have a Provincial Head as the representative of the Federal government.The President shall appoint a Provincial Head for every province. The Provincial Head shall exercise the rights and duties as specified in the constitution or laws. The Provincial Head shall appoint the leader of the parliamentary party with majority in the Provincial Assembly as the Chief Minister and the Provincial Council of Ministers shall be formed under the chair personship of the Chief Minister. Legislative Federal legislature There shall be a Legislature, called Federal Parliament, consisting of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the National Assembly. The House of Representatives Except when dissolved earlier, the term of House of Representatives shall be five years. The House of Representatives shall consist of 275 members as follows: 165 members elected through the first-past-the-post electoral system consisting of one member from each of the one hundred and sixty five electoral constituencies formed by dividing Nepal into 165 constituencies based on geography, and population.110 elected from proportional representation electoral system where voters vote for parties, while treating the whole country as a single electoral constituency. The National Assembly National Assembly shall be a permanent house. The tenure of members of National Assembly shall be six years. The National Assembly shall consist of two 59 members as follows: 56 members elected from an Electoral College comprising members of Provincial Assembly and chairpersons and vice-chairpersons of Village councils and Mayors and Deputy Mayors of Municipal councils, with different weights of votes for each, with eight members from each province, including at least three women, one Dalit, one person with disability or minority; 3 members, including at least one woman, to be nominated by the President on the recommendation of Government of Nepal. Provincial legislature There shall be a unicameral legislature in a province which shall be called the Provincial Assembly. Every Provincial Assembly shall consist of the following number of members: Members equal to double the number of members to be elected through the first-past-the-post (FPTP) election system to the House of Representatives from the concerned province, The number of members to be elected through the Proportional Representation (PR) election system equal to the number equivalent to the remaining forty per cent when the number of members from FPTP is regarded as sixty per cent. Judiciary Powers relating to justice in Nepal shall be exercised by courts and other judicial institutions in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution, other laws and recognized principles of justice. There shall be the following courts in Nepal:
Supreme Court
High Courts
District Courts
Foreign relations of Nepal Embassy of Nepal in Washington, D.C. Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbors, India and China. In accordance with a long-standing treaty, Indian and Nepali citizens may travel to each other's countries without a passport or visa. Nepali citizens may work in India without legal restriction. The Indian Army maintains seven Gorkha regiments consisting of Gorkha troops recruited mostly from Nepal. However, in the years since the Government of Nepal has been dominated by socialists, and India's government has been controlled by more right-wing parties, India has been remilitarizing the "porous" Indo-Nepali border to stifle the flow of Islamist groups. Nepal established relations with the People's Republic of China on 1 August 1955, and relations since have been based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. Nepal has aided China in the aftermath of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, and China has provided economic assistance for Nepali infrastructure. Both countries have cooperated to host the 2008 Summer Olympics summit of Mt. Everest.Nepal has assisted in curbing anti-China protests from the Tibetan diaspora. Military Nepalese Armed Forces Gurkha Memorial, London Nepal's military consists of the Nepali Army, which includes the Nepali Army Air Service. The Nepali Police Force is the civilian police and the Armed Police Force Nepal is the paramilitary force. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military—1.5% of its GDP. Much of the equipment and arms are imported from India. Consequently, the US provided M16s, M4s and other Colt weapons to combat communist (Maoist) insurgents. The standard-issue battle rifle of the Nepali army is the Colt M16. In the new regulations by Nepali Army, female soldiers have been barred from participating in combat situations and fighting in the frontlines of war. However, they are allowed to be a part of the army in sections like intelligence, headquarters, signals and operations.
AreaRanked 93rd • Total147,181 km2 (56,827 sq mi) • Land92.94% • Water7.06% Borders Total land borders:
2,926 km (1,818 mi)
China (PRC):1,236 km (768 mi)
India:1,690 km (1,050 mi)
Highest point:Mount Everest 8,848 m (29,029 ft) Longest river: Karnali Largest lake:Rara Lake Nepal measures about 800 kilometers (497 mi) along its Himalayan axis by 150 to 250 kilometers (93 to 155 mi) across. Nepal has an area of 147,181 square kilometers (56,827 sq mi). Nepal is landlocked by India on three sides and China's Tibet Autonomous Region to the north. West Bengal's narrow Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck separate Nepal and Bangladesh. To the east are India and Bhutan. Nepal depends on India for goods transport facilities and access to the sea, even for most goods imported from China. Landform Regions For a small country, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity. It rises from as low as 59 metres (194 ft) elevation in the tropical Terai—the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain, beyond the perpetual snow line to some 90 peaks over 7,000 metres (22,966 ft) including Earth's highest 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) Mount Everest or Sagarmatha. In addition to the continuum from tropical warmth to cold comparable to polar regions, average annual precipitation varies from as little as 160 milli-metres (6.3 in) in the rain shadow north of the Himalaya to as much as 5,500 millimetres (216.5 in) on windward slopes. Along a south-to-north transect, Nepal can be divided into three belts: Terai, Hill and Mountain Regions. In the other direction, it is divided into three major river systems, from east to west: Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani and Karnali (including the Mahakali/Sarda along the western border), all tributaries of the Ganges. The Ganges-Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra watershed largely coincides with the Nepal-Tibet border, however several Ganges tributaries rise inside Tibet.
Terai Region Terai and Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal The Terai (also Tarai) or Madhesh region begins at the Indian border and includes the southernmost part of the flat, intensively farmed Gangetic Plain called the Outer Terai. By the 19th century, timber and other resources were being exported to India. Industrialization based on agricultural products such as jute began in the 1930's and infrastructure such roadways, railways and electricity were extended across the border before it reached Nepal's hill regions. The Outer Terai is culturally more similar to adjacent parts of India's Bihar and Uttar Pradesh than to the hill region of Nepal. Nepali is taught in schools and often spoken in government offices, however the local population mostly uses Maithali, Bhojpuri and Tharu languages. The Outer Terai ends at the base of the first range of foothills called the Siwaliks or Churia. This range has a densely forested skirt of coarse alluvium called the bhabhar. Below the bhabhar, finer, less permeable sediments force groundwater to the surface in a zone of springs and marshes. In Persian, terai refers to wet or marshy ground. Before the use of DDT this was dangerously malarial. Nepal's rulers used this for a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (four kos forest, one kos equalling about three kilometers or two miles). Above the bhabhar belt, the Siwaliks rise to about 700 metres (2,297 ft) with peaks as high as 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), steeper on their southern flanks because of faults known as the Main Frontal Thrust. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that do not retain water or support soil development so there is virtually no agricultural potential and sparse population.In several places beyond the Siwaliks there are dūn valleys called Inner Terai . These valleys have productive soil but were dangerously malarial except to indigenous Tharu people who had genetic resistance. In the mid-1950s DDT came into use to suppress mosquitos and the way was open to settlement from the land-poor hills, to the detriment of the Tharu. The terai ends and the Hills begin at a higher range of foothills called the Mahabharat Range. Hill Region Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahad in Nepali) is mostly between 700 and 3,000 metres (2,000 and 10,000 ft) altitude. This region begins at the Mahabharat Range (Lesser Himalaya) where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 metres (3,000 to 5,000 ft) high, to a crest between 1,500 and 2,700 metres (5,000 and 9,000 ft). These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hill regions. Hindu Paharis mainly populate river and stream bottoms that enable rice cultivation and are warm enough for winter/spring crops of wheat and potato. The increasingly urbanized Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys fall within the Hill region. Newars are an indigenous ethnic group with their own Tibeto-Burman language. The Newar were originally indigenous to the Kathmandu valley but have spread into Pokhara and other towns alongside urbanized Pahari. Other indigenous janajati ethnic groups -— natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects -— populate hillsides up to about 2,500 metres (8,000 ft). This group includes Magar and Kham Magar west of Pokhara, Gurung south of the Annapurnas, Tamang around the periphery of Kathmandu Valley and Rai, Koinch Sunuwar and Limbu further east. Temperate and subtropical fruits are grown as cash crops. Marijuana was grown and processed into Charas (hashish) until international pressure persuaded the government to outlaw it in 1976. There is increasing reliance on animal husbandry with elevation, using land above 2,000 metres (7,000 ft) for summer grazing and moving herds to lower elevations in winter. Grain production has not kept pace with population growth at elevations above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) where colder temperatures inhibit double cropping. Food deficits drive emigration out of the hills in search of employment.The Hill region ends where ridges begin substantially rising out of the temperate climate zone into subalpine zone above 3,000 metres (10,000 ft). Mountain Region Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau. Mountain Region or Parbat begins where high ridges begin substantially rising above 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) into the subalpine and alpine zone which are mainly used for seasonal pasturage. A few tens kilometers further north the high Himalaya abruptly rise along the Main Central Thrust fault zone above the snow line at 5,000 to 5,500 metres (16,400 to 18,000 ft). Some 90 of Nepal's peaks exceed 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) and eight exceed 8,000 metres (26,247 ft) including Mount Everest at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) and Kanchenjunga at 8,598 metres (28,209 ft). Unlike the Mahabharats, the Himalaya are not continuous across Nepal. Instead there are some 20 subranges including the Kanchenjunga massif along the Sikkim border, Mahalangur Himal around Mt. Everest. Langtang north of Kathmandu, Annapurna and Manaslu north of Pokhara, then Dhaulagiri further west with Kanjiroba north of Jumla and finally Gurans Himal in the far west. Trans-Himalayan Region The main watershed between the Brahmaputra (called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet) and the Ganges system (including all of Nepal) actually lies north of the highest ranges. Alpine, often semi-arid valleys—including Humla, Jumla, Dolpo, Mustang, Manang and Khumbu—cut between Himalayan subranges or lie north of them. Some of these valleys historically were more accessible from Tibet than Nepal and are populated by people with Tibetan affinities called Bhotiya or Bhutia including the famous Sherpas in Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. With Chinese cultural hegemony in Tibet itself, these valleys have become repositories of traditional ways. Valleys with better access from the hill regions to the south are culturally linked to Nepal as well as Tibet, notably the Kali Gandaki Gorge where Thakali culture shows influences in both directions. Permanent villages in the mountain region stand as high as 4,500 metres (15,000 ft) with summer encampments even higher. Bhotiyas graze yaks, grow cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley, buckwheat and millet. They traditionally traded across the mountains, e.g., Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since trade was restricted in the 1950s they have found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism. Climate Nepal's latitude is about the same as that of Florida, however with elevations ranging from less than 100 meters (300 ft) to over 8,000 meters (26,000 ft) and precipitation from 160 millimeters (6 in) to over 5,000 millimeters (16 ft) the country has eight climate zones from tropical to perpetual snow. The tropical zone below 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) experiences frost less than once per decade. It can be subdivided into lower tropical (below 300 meters or 1,000 ft.) with 18% of the nation's land area) and upper (18% of land area) tropical zones. The best mangoes and well as papaya and banana are largely confined to the lower zone. Other fruit such as litchee, jackfruit, citrus and mangoes of lower quality grow in the upper tropical zone as well. Winter crops include grains and vegetables typically grown in temperate climates. The Outer Terai is virtually all in the lower tropical zone. Inner Terai valleys span both tropical zones. The Sivalik Hills are mostly upper tropical. Tropical climate zones extend far up river valleys across the Middle Hills and even into the Mountain regions. The subtropical climate zone from 1,000 to 2,000 meters (3,300 to 6,600 ft) occupies 22% of Nepal's land area and is the most prevalent climate of the Middle Hills above river valleys. It experiences frost up to 53 days per year, however this varies greatly with elevation, proximity to high mountains and terrain either draining or ponding cold air drainage. Crops include rice, maize, millet, wheat, potato, stone fruits and citrus. The great majority of Nepal's population occupies the tropical and subtropical climate zones. In the Middle Hills, upper-caste Hindus are concentrated in tropical valleys which are well suited for rice cultivation while Janajati ethnic groups mostly live above in the subtropical zone and grow other grains more than rice.The Temperate climate zone from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (6,600 to 9,800 ft) occupies 12% of Nepal's land area and has up to 153 annual days of frost. It is encountered in higher parts of the Middle Hills and throughout much of the Mountain region. Crops include cold-tolerant rice, maize, wheat, barley, potato, apple, walnut, peach, various cole, amaranthus and buckwheat. The Subalpine zone from 3,000 to 4,000 meters (9,800 to 13,100 ft) occupies 9% of Nepal's land area, mainly in the Mountain and Himalayan regions. It has permanent settlements in the Himalaya, but further south it is only seasonally occupied as pasture for sheep, goats, yak and hybrids in warmer months. There are up to 229 annual days of frost here. Crops include barley, potato, cabbage, cauliflower, amaranthus, buckwheat and apple. Medicinal plants are gathered. The Alpine zone from 4,000 to 5,000 meters (13,100 to 16,400 ft) occupies 8% of the country's land area. There are a few permanent settlements above 4,000 meters. There is virtually no plant cultivation although medicinal herbs are gathered. Sheep, goats, yaks and hybrids are pastured in warmer months.Above 5,000 meters the climate becomes Nival and there is no human habitation or even seasonal use. Arid and semi-arid land in the rainshadow of high ranges have a Transhimalayan climate. Population density is very low. Cultivation and husbandry conform to subalpine and alpine patterns but depend on snowmelt and streams for irrigation. Precipitation generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal, source of the summer monsoon. Eastern Nepal gets about 2,500 mm (100 in) annually; the Kathmandu area about 1,400 mm (55 in) and western Nepal about 1,000 mm (40 in). This pattern is modified by adiabatic effects as rising air masses cool and drop their moisture content on windward slopes, then warm up as they descend so relative humidity drops. Annual precipitation reaches 5,500 mm (18 ft) on windward slopes in the Annapurna Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the Mahabharat Range. In rainshadows beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation drops as low as 160 mm (6 in). Seasons The year is divided into a wet season from June to September—as summer warmth over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean—and a dry season from October to June as cold temperatures in the vast interior creates a high pressure zone causing dry air to flow outward. April and May are months of intense water stress when cumulative effects of the long dry season are exacerbated by temperatures rising over 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropical climate belt. Seasonal drought further intensifies in the Siwaliks hills consisting of poorly consolidated, coarse, permeable sediments that do not retain water, so hillsides are often covered with drought-tolerant scrub forest. In fact much of Nepal's native vegetation adapted to withstand drought, but less so at higher elevations where cooler temperatures mean less water stress. The summer monsoon may be preceded by a buildup of thunderstorm activity that provides water for rice seedbeds. Sustained rain on average arrives in mid-June as rising temperatures over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean, but this can vary up to a month. Significant failure of monsoon rains historically meant drought and famine while above-normal rains still cause flooding and landslides with losses in human lives, farmland and buildings. The monsoon also complicates transportation with roads and trails washing out while unpaved roads and airstrips may become unusable and cloud cover reduces safety margins for aviation. Rains diminish in September and generally end by mid-October, ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals—Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)—arrive during this period, about one month apart. The post monsoon season lasts until about December. After the post monsoon comes the winter monsoon, a strong north easterly flow marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. In this season the Himalayas function as a barrier to cold air masses from Inner Asia, so southern Nepal and northern India have warmer winters than would otherwise be the case. April and May are dry and hot, especially below 1,200 meters (4,000 ft) where afternoon temperatures may exceed 40 °C (104 °F). Environment The dramatic changes in elevation along this transect result in a variety of biomes, from tropical savannas along the Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and coniferous forests in the hills, to temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests on the slopes of the Himalaya,to montane grasslands and shrublands, and finally rock and ice at the highest elevations. This corresponds to the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion. Subtropical forests dominate the lower elevations of the Hill Region. They form a mosaic running east-west across Nepal, with Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests between 500 and 1,000 meters (1,600 and 3,300 ft) and Himalayan subtropical pine forests between 1,000 and 2,000 meters (3,300 and 6,600 ft). At higher elevations, to 3,000 meters (10,000 ft), are found temperate broadleaf forests: eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests to the east of the Gandaki River and western Himalayan broadleaf forests to the west. The native forests of the Mountain Region change from east to west as precipitation decreases. They can be broadly classified by their relation to the Gandaki River. From 3,000 to 4,000 meters (10,000 to 13,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. To 5,500 meters (18,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. River systems Nepal has three categories of rivers. The largest systems from east to west Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani, Karnali/Goghra and Mahakali originate in multiple tributaries rising in or beyond the high Himalaya that maintain substantial flows from snow melt through the hot, droughty spring before the summer monsoon. These tributaries cross the highest mountains in deep gorges, flow south through the Middle Hills, then join in candelabra-like configuration before crossing the Mahabharat Range and emerging onto the plains where they have deposited megafans exceeding 10,000 km2 (4,000 sq mi) area. The Koshi is also called Sapta Koshi for its seven Himalayan tributaries in eastern Nepal: Indrawati, Sun Koshi, Tama Koshi, Dudh Koshi, Liku, Arun, and Tamor. The Arun rises in Tibet some 150 kilometers (100 mi) beyond Nepal's northern border. A tributary of the Sun Koshi, Bhote Koshi also rises in Tibet and is followed by the Arniko Highway connecting Kathmandu and Lhasa. The Gandaki/Narayani has seven Himalayan tributaries in the center of the country: Daraudi, Seti Gandaki, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli also called Sapta Gandaki. The Kali Gandaki rises on the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and flows through the semi-independent Kingdom of Mustang, then between the 8,000 meter Dhaulagiri and Annapurna ranges in the world's deepest valley. The Trisuli rises north of the international border inside Tibet. After the seven upper tributaries join, the river becomes the Narayani inside Nepal and is joined by the (East) Rapti from Chitwan Valley. Crossing into India, its name changes to Gandak. The Karnali drains western Nepal, with the Bheri and Seti as major tributaries. The upper Bheri drains Dolpo, a remote valley beyond the Dhaulagiri Himalaya with traditional Tibetan cultural affinities. The upper Karnali rises inside Tibet near sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash. The area around these features is the hydrographic nexus of South Asia since it holds the sources of the Indus and its major tributary the Sutlej, the Karnali—a Ganges tributary—and the Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra. It is the center of the universe according to traditional cosmography. The Mahakali or Kali along the Nepal-India border on the west joins the Karnali in India, where the river is known as Goghra or Ghaghara. Second category rivers rise in the Middle Hills and Mahabharat Range, from east to west the Mechi, Kankai and Kamala south of the Kosi; the Bagmati that drains Kathmandu Valley between the Kosi and Gandaki systems, then the West Rapti and the Babai between the Gandaki and Karnali systems. Without glacial sources, annual flow regimes in these rivers are more variable although limited flow persists through the dry season. Third category rivers rise in the outermost Siwalik foothills and are mostly seasonal. None of these river systems support significant commercial navigation. Instead, deep gorges create obstacles to establishing transport and communication networks and de-fragmenting the economy. Foot-trails are still primary transportation routes in many hill districts. River management Rivers in all three categories are capable of causing serious floods.Koshi River in the first category caused a major flood in August 2008 in Bihar state, India after breaking through a poorly maintained embankment just inside Nepal.The West Rapti in the second category is called Gorakhpur's Sorrow for its history of urban flooding.Third category Terai rivers are associated with flash floods. Since uplift and erosion are more or less in equilibrium in the Himalaya, at least where the climate is humid, rapid uplift must be balanced out by annual increments of millions tonnes of sediments washing down from the mountains; then on the plains settling out of suspension on vast alluvial fans over which rivers meander and change course at least every few decades, causing some experts to question whether man made embankments can contain the problem of flooding.Traditional Mithila culture along the lower Koshi in Nepal and Bihar celebrated the river as the giver of life for its fertile alluvial soil, yet also the taker of life through its catastrophic floods. Large reservoirs in the Middle Hills may be able to capture peak flows and mitigate downstream flooding, to store surplus monsoon flows for dry season irrigation and to generate electricity. Water for irrigation is especially compelling because the Indian Terai is suspected to have entered a food bubble where dry season crops are dependent on water from tubewells that in the aggregate are unsustainably "mining" groundwater. Depletion of aquifers without building upstream dams as a sustainable alternative water source could precipitate a Malthusian catastrophe in India's food insecure states Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,with over 300 million combined population. With India already experiencing a Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in Bihar, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh, Nepalese reluctance to agree to water projects could even seem an existential threat to India.As Nepal builds barrages to divert more water for irrigation during the dry season preceding the summer monsoon, there is less for downstream users in Bangladesh and India's Bihar and Uttar Pradesh states. The best solution could be building large upstream reservoirs, to capture and store surplus flows during summer monsoon as well as providing flood control benefits to Bangladesh and India. Then water sharing agreements could allocate a portion of the stored water to be left to flow into India during the following dry season. Nevertheless,building dams in Nepal is controversial for several reasons.First, the region is seismically active.Dam failures caused by earthquakes could cause tremendous death and destruction downstream, particularly on the densely populated Gangetic Plain.Second, global warming has led to the formation of glacial lakes dammed by unstable moraines. Sudden failures of these moraines can cause floods with cascading failures of manmade structures downstream. Third, sedimentation rates in the Himalaya are extremely high, leading to rapid loss of storage capacity as sediments accumulate behind dams.Fourth, there are complicated questions of cross-border equity in how India and Nepal would share costs and benefits that have proven difficult to resolve in the context of frequent acrimony between the two countries. Land cover ICIMOD’s first and most complete national land cover database of Nepal prepared using public domain Landsat TM data of 2010 shows that show that forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538 km2 with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country. Most of this forest cover is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200 km2 or 14.4% of the geographical area. Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8267 km2 (5.62%). Agriculture area is significant extending over 43,910 km2 (29.83%). As would be expected, the high mountain area is largely covered by snow and glaciers and barren land. Terraced farmland in Nepal. The Hill region constitutes the largest portion of Nepal, covering 29.5% of the geographical area, and has a large area (19,783 km2) of cultivated or managed lands, natural and semi natural vegetation (22,621 km2) and artificial surfaces (200 km2). The Tarai region has more cultivated or managed land (14,104 km2) and comparatively less natural and semi natural vegetation (4280 km2). The Tarai has only 267 km2 of natural water bodies. The High mountain region has 12,062 km2 of natural water bodies, snow/glaciers and 13,105 km2 barren areas. Forests 25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km2 (14,039 sq mi) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of primary forest which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as protected while about 21.4% is conserved according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as production forest. Between 2000 and 2005, Nepal lost about 2,640 km2 (1,019 sq mi) of forest. Nepal's 2000–2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of 530 km2 (205 sq mi) of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990 to 2000 was 920 km2 (355 sq mi) or 2.1% per year. The 2000–2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is -0.4% or 70 km2 (27 sq mi) per year. Forest is not changing in the plan land of Nepal, forest fragmenting on the Roof of the World. According to ICIMOD figures from 2010, forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538 km2 with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country.Most of this forest cover is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200 km2 or 14.4% of the geographical area. Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8,267 km2 (5.62%). At national level 64.8% area is covered by core forests of > 500 ha size and 23.8% forests belong to patch and edge category forests. The patch forest constituted 748 km2 at national level, out of which 494 km2 of patch forests are present in hill regions. Middle mountains, Siwaliks and Terai regions have more than 70% of the forest area under core forest category > 500 ha size. The edge forests constituted around 30% of forest area of High Mountain and Hill regions. Deforestation is driven by multiple processes.Virtually throughout the nation, over-harvest of firewood remains problematic. Despite the availability of liquefied petroleum gas in towns and cities, firewood is sold more at energy-competitive prices because cutting and selling it is a fallback when better employment opportunities aren't forthcoming. Firewood still supplies 80% of Nepal's energy for heating and cooking. Harvesting construction timber and lopping branches for fodder for cattle and other farm animals are also deforestation/degradation drivers in all geographic zones. Illegal logging is a problems in the Siwaliks, with saw logs smuggled into India.Clearing for resettlement and agriculture expansion also causes deforestation as does urban expansion, building infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, electric transmission lines, water tanks, police and army barracks, temples and picnic areas. In the Middle Hills road construction, reservoirs, transmission lines and extractive manufacturing such as cement factories cause deforestation. In the mountains building hotels, monasteries and trekking trails cause deforestation while timber-smuggling into the Tibet Autonomous Region and over-grazing cause degradation.
